The Chronic Condition of Hispanic High School

IntroductionThe release of the 2010 U.S. Census consequences last month revealed a altering face for the state. Driven by the 43 % growing of both Hispanics and Asians over the past decennary, cultural minorities will go the new population bulk in the following 30-40 old ages ( U.S. Census Bureau, 2011 ) . Unfortunately, what has non changed is the dismaying high school dropout rate for Hispanics. Since the 1970s, the Latino dropout rate has been systematically among the worst of all population groups, top outing every bit high as 35 % , to a recent depression of 18.3 % in 2008 ( National Center for Education Statistics [ NCES ] , 2010 ) . This rate is more than twice that of African Americans and about three-times higher than Whites and Asians. Although other cultural minority groups have made important advancement over the past three decennaries, Hispanics continue to stay at the really underside of the instruction ladder. The literature cites many grounds for the inordinate Latino dropout rates ( a ) hapless English accomplishments making linguistic communication barriers with instructors and school functionaries ; ( B ) economic factors ; many Latino households live in poorness and need pupils ‘ income ; ( degree Celsius ) fewer function theoretical accounts ensuing in minimum mentoring chances ; ( vitamin D ) challenges linking with instructors ( linguistic communication, civilization, etc. ) which makes pupils experience unwanted and causes them to lose involvement ; ( vitamin E ) big per centum of Spanish americans are migratory workers and hence, a more transeunt population ; and ( degree Fahrenheit ) parents deficiency of engagement in their kids ‘s educational development. Although the articles reviewed in this survey determined that many factors contributed to these hapless consequences, they do n't concentrate on a individual, major cause for the inordinate dropout rates. Alternatively they conclude that all of these elements, or some combination of them, impact Latino pupils ‘ desire to go forth school early. The literature does propose nevertheless that a important, if non the most of import, ground for dropping out is the concluding factor listed above, the absence of Latino parents ‘ engagement in the pupils ‘ larning procedure. Unfortunately, there is non adequate research on why Latino parents are non every bit involved as other groups, so farther analysis is needed. Since this seems to be a less reviewed country, I have decided to look deeper into the issue and research possible grounds why Latino parents do non take part in their kids ‘s schooling. This is an of import subject because household is cardinal to the Latin o civilization. Children are near to their households and to the communities they live in, so more parent engagement can be a important measure in assisting with the keeping of these pupils. Additionally, I believe utilizing the model from Hofstede ‘s Model of Cultural Dimensions for measuring civilizations may assist explicate grounds why Spanish americans are non more involved in their kids ‘s educational activities. More specifically, it appears that the power distance value dimension of national civilization could be a factor that prevents Hispanics from concentrating on instruction to better their place in society. Power distance describes the extent to which less powerful members of a society ( like the household ) accept and expect that power in establishments and organisations is distributed unevenly. This behavior suggests that a civilization ‘s function of inequality is endorsed by both the followings and the leaders. A high evaluation on power distance means that big inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the civilization, as in a category or caste system that discourages upward mobility. A bulk of the Hispanics who immig rate to the U.S. to seek work are from Mexico which has a really high evaluation in the power distance cultural dimension. In fact, Mexico is ranked in the top five of high power distance states in the universe ( Robbins & A ; Judge, 2010 ) .Significance of StudyThis issue is important because U.S. demographics are altering dramatically in this state. Hispanics represent one of the fastest turning sections of the population. Harmonizing to the 2010 Census Brief, the Hispanic population was about 50.5 million, which was about 16 % of the overall U.S. population of 308 million ( U.S. Census Bureau, 2011 ) .The figure of Hispanics has grown about 43 % since 2000, and accounted for about 55 % of the entire state ‘s growing during that same ten-year period. This is more than five times the growing rate of the entire population of 9.7 % . If the current tendency continues, the population of the United States will lift to about 438 million in 2050, with Hispanics trebling in size and accounting for most of the state ‘s population growing. At that clip, the Latino population is estimated to be around 127 million or approximately 29 % of the entire U.S. population ( U.S. Census Bureau, 2009 ) . With schools shortly to be overburdened with this enormous growing of Latino pupils, the United States has no pick but to turn to the high school dropout crisis for two major grounds. First of wholly, the economic cost both existent and possible is reeling. Over their life-times, high school dropouts earn about $ 400,000 less, have higher unemployment rates, and poorer wellness than alumnuss. The dropouts from the Class of 2008 alone will be the state more than $ 319 billion in lost rewards and over $ 17 billion in Medicaid and expenditures for uninsured wellness attention over the class of their life-times ( AEE, February 2009 ) . The 2nd ground is the dropout crisis could impact the state ‘s position as a universe world power. With Hispanics and other cultural minority groups going the bulk of the U.S. population in the following two decennaries, the possible exists for an undereducated work force which may non be able to vie in a planetary economic system, particularly with the increased focal point on engineering. The intent of this exploratory survey is to place possible grounds for Latino parents ‘ deficiency of engagement in their kids ‘s acquisition procedure which contributes to excessive high school dropout rates and to besides find if it can be explained by Hofstede ‘s Model of Cultural Dimensions.Reappraisal of the LiteratureThere is no inquiry that pupils play the primary function when doing the determination to drop out of high school, but for the intents of this survey, the chief focal point was on outside influences to the job. Although the major purpose of this paper is to look at grounds for parents ‘ deficiency of engagement in their kids ‘s instruction, the literature exposed different subjects which were grouped into three dropout factors: ( a ) environmental, ( B ) school system, and ( degree Celsius ) parental engagement. These classs will be looked at shortly, but first it is necessary to find if the d ropout rate is every bit high as advertised. Many statistics segregate U.S. born dropouts from foreign born, state of beginning or generational degree. Fry ( â€Å" High School Dropout Ratess, † 2003 ) states that calculating dropout rates for Hispanics is a convoluted procedure because every bit many as 33 % are foreign born, and their states of beginning have much lower rates of secondary school completion than the U.S. As a consequence, many are non academically prepared to come in U.S. high schools, so they struggle and finally drop out, or in some instances ne'er enroll. Furthermore, Fry points out that many of these immigrants have really limited spoken English abilities and most do non derive English eloquence until age 16. By that clip, they are so far behind they face hopeless odds of catching up and either voluntarily bead out, or stop up meeting age restrictions that force them out. In a follow-up survey by Fry ( â€Å" Hispanic Youth Droping out of U.S. Schools, † 2003 ) , he concluded that the sum Hispanic high school dropout rate of 21 % published in 2000, was overstated. This resulted from the chunking together of three subgroups of Latino young persons ( a ) the native Born, ( B ) foreign-born who attend U.S. schools, and ( degree Celsius ) foreign-born who emigrate chiefly for employment and do non inscribe in U.S. schools. When the first two classs are examined individually, the rate becomes 15 % . Although this is well smaller, it is still twice every bit high as the dropout rate for comparable non-Hispanic Whites. Almost all growing in the figure of U.S. teens over the following 20 old ages will be Latino, so it is imperative that this negative tendency is reversed. Despite how the dropout per centums are sliced and diced, the bottom line is if Latino young persons are populating in the United States, irrespective of class, they all need to be co unted towards the overall dropout rate so that the job can be addressed as a whole. The following measure is to look at the subjects that developed in the literature.Environmental Issues that Contribute to the Dropout RateReyes ‘ ( 1993 ) survey followed up on low and high hazard Hispanic high school pupils a twelvemonth after their expected graduation rate. She found that low-risk pupils completed school at a much higher rate than high hazard pupils. She so looked at one of the major grounds that lead to school failure for immature Hispanics ; specifically, their exposure to legion nerve-racking life events which places them at high hazard for dropping out. For illustration, their vicinities may see higher than mean offense rates, unemployment, drugs, packs, adolescent gestations, public assistance dependence, etc. As a consequence, these pupils sometimes have a more hard clip seting to a school environment. This could take to inordinate absenteeism, hooky, and an eventual tr ansportation to dark school or a Graduate Equivalency Diploma plan. The nerve-racking life events besides influence household determinations to relocate which contributes further to the instability of pupil ‘s academic public presentation. Whether traveling out of province or back to their state of beginning, parents relocate kids who are sing behavioural jobs at place or school and take them out of the nerve-racking environment, particularly if the kids get involved with packs or drugs. Unfortunately, it appears that parents ‘ engagement with their kids ‘s instruction, irrespective of environment, could hold been a finding factor as to whether that kid graduated or non. Perreira and Harris ( 2006 ) considered assimilation theories as a possible subscriber to high school dropout rates. The Straight-Line hypothesis predicts cultural differences will decrease over clip as immigrants are acculturated into society. Therefore, the first coevals will hold the highest dropout rates, the 2nd coevals will hold the following highest, and each subsequent coevals will hold less than the old. The Accommodation or Selective Assimilation hypothesis predicts the exact opposite educational flight as the straight-line attack. Harmonizing to this theory, as immigrant young person assimilate with their U.S. Born equals, they lose the protective qualities of cultural cultural norms instilled in them by their parents. As a consequence, this theory predicts that first-generation young person will hold the highest degrees of academic accomplishment and lower dropout rates, whereas second-or higher coevals young person will hold the lowest degrees of academic accomplishment and the highest dropout rates. Consequences of this survey revealed that first-generation Latino immigrants graduated from high school at higher rates than their parents, but these initial additions in educational attainment relation to their parents decreased in the 2nd coevals. By the 3rd and higher coevals, Latino young persons had higher dropout rates than their parents. This determination does non match with straight-line assimilation theory, but alternatively provides strong support for the selective and metameric assimilation hypothesis. Sterns and Glennie ( 2006 ) studied a group of 9th and 10th class dropouts in North Carolina and discovered that Latino pupils have the highest early dropout rate among all cultural groups. The deductions can hold negative effects for persons throughout their lives. On norm, high school dropouts are less likely to be employed than other grownups, have poorer mental and physical wellness, a greater likeliness of perpetrating condemnable Acts of the Apostless, and a higher likeliness of going dependant on public assistance and other authorities plans than people with higher educational attainment. Much of the Hispanics ‘ high dropout rate can be traced to disadvantages in socioeconomic position, household construction, and negative academic experiences. The writers determined the undermentioned grounds for dropping out: ( a ) academic jobs, ( B ) subject, ( degree Celsius ) employment, ( vitamin D ) household issues, ( vitamin E ) transitory life style, and ( degree Fahrenheit ) terra incognita. The job with this survey is â€Å" unknown † ground histories for 58 % of the overall sample. Until these grounds are known, bar plans can non be established to run into pupil demands.School System Related Issues that Contribute to the Dropout RateHarmonizing to Martinez and DeGarmo ( 2004 ) , many school systems around the state are non prepared to turn to the demands of an progressively culturally pluralistic pupil population. As a consequence, Latinos are overrepresented in samples of households at hazard for hapless behavioural and mental wellness jobs, and their dropout rates are three times greater than white non-Latino pupils. Research associating socialization with school success for Latino childs has shown that factors such as recent in-migration and limited English proficiency increase the hazard of dropping out for Hispanic pupils. Latin american parents besides reported more barriers to engagement in their kids ‘s school than non-Latino pare nts. Additionally, Latino parents besides had more trouble assisting with prep and Latino childs reported less handiness of societal support than non-Latino childs. A important determination revealed that academic encouragement by parents and school staff members served as a cardinal protective factor in advancing school success for Latino young persons. In shutting, the writer suggested that instructors and decision makers need to be better equipped to cover with progressively diverse schoolrooms. For illustration, they need to increase their expertness in diverseness, derive entree to culturally inclusive course of study stuffs, and be willing to accommodate standard stuffs when such multicultural course of study is unavailable. More significantly, they need to develop intercession schemes to affect parents and heighten their abilities to advance success for their kids. A survey by Christle, Jolivette, and Nelson ( 2007 ) examined dropout rates in Kentucky high schools utilizing both quantitative and qualitative processs. The findings reflected that attending rates were negatively correlated with dropout rates in this survey. This determination supports the observation that pupils who feel a sense of belonging and connexion with the school are less likely to drop out. Additionally, the cultural background of the pupil organic structure was related to dropout rate in this survey ; the higher the dropout rates, the lower the per centum of white pupils. Furthermore, 46 % of Black and 39 % of Latino pupils attended schools where graduation is non the norm. Teachers are besides an of import beginning of societal capital for pupils. Teachers in low dropout schools showed involvement in the pupils, had sufficient support from decision makers, and made positive relationships a high precedence in the schoolroom. Finally, dropping out of high school is non an unprompted action, but instead a cumulative procedure. Unsuccessful school experiences, such as academic failure, class keeping, absenteeism, behaviour and subject jobs, and transportations from one school to another physique on one another to finally estrange the pupil from school. By placing differences between high schools with high dropout rates and low dropout rates, schools can implement policies and processs to prosecute pupils and ease their success. Rodriguez ( 2008 ) discovered that the Hispanic dropout rate in some big urban countries reached every bit high as 50 % . Looking for a solution, the Governor of Puerto Rico expressed involvement in utilizing a popular hip-hop instrumentalist to turn to the issue of school abandonment. However, he was extremely criticized because of the wordss of the music and the fact that the instrumentalist was a high school dropout himself. However, the of import point of the survey was that the Governor recognized the power and connexion between popular civilization and immature people. Unfortunately, the Numberss of Latino high school alumnuss are non maintaining up with the altering demographics. Therefore, it is clip for originative thoughts such as this one to happen solutions. But what precisely is doing this persistent job? A survey by Valenzuela ( as cited in Rodriguez, 2008 ) , shows there is a correlativity between certain hazard factors and graduation. For illustration, Latinos whose p arents do non complete high school and go to barrio-schools in southern California have a 50 % opportunity of gaining a high school sheepskin. Additionally, more and more school related incidents are being referred to the condemnable justness system and school-level disciplinary processs such as belated policies are lending to the dropout sums. Unfortunately, schools ‘ belated policies lock out pupils who truly necessitate to be in school and sends a message to them that the school does n't desire them at that place. The writer believes utilizing advanced techniques such as hip-hop music to heighten acquisition could maintain marginalized pupils in school. Since traditional methods are non working, it is now clip to look for non-traditional attacks.Parental Involvement Issues that Contribute to the Dropout RateRumberger and Lim ( 2008 ) identified two factors that have a strong bearing on whether pupils graduate from high school ( a ) single features of pupils, and ( B ) insti tutional features of their households, schools, and communities. Within the former class, the writers found that pupil battle both academically and socially and educational outlooks are the most of import determiners for remaining in school. Conversely, high absenteeism and working more than 20 hours per hebdomad correlated to higher dropout rates. The latter class of institutional factors such as household and schools can besides be strong forecasters of graduating or dropping out. Populating with both parents and more household resources resulted in lower dropout rates. More significantly, rearing patterns such as holding high aspirations for their kids, supervising school advancement, and pass oning with the school are strong subscribers to higher graduation rates. This is the type of parental engagement needed to change by reversal the negative tendency of Hispanic dropouts. Stern ( 2004 ) discusses the consequences of the 2002 White House Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanics appointed by President Bush to assist cut down the high school dropout rate. The committee ‘s study stated that Latino parents were non adequately involved with their kids ‘s instruction. Ironically nevertheless, the support was cut to plans that help Latino parents larn how to acquire connected to the acquisition procedure. The National Council of La Raza ( NCLR ) is disbelieving about the study which they felt offered no substantial recommendations. They besides dispute the averment that Latino parents do non take portion in their child ‘s instruction. However, what NCLR failed to see was the fact that parents may acquire involved, but this does non intend it is effectual battle. You can do a kid make his or her prep, but without the proper aid, that prep may non be right. One of the disposal ‘s enterprises was the â€Å" Yes I Can † ru n. Its web site promoted literacy consciousness for parents. Unfortunately, there were likely merely a little per centum of Latino parents who had entree to computing machines or had some degree of proficiency in utilizing them. Two other points were made in the article to assist better the low dropout rates ( a ) rise teacher outlooks of Hispanics, and ( B ) better instructor preparation. Although raising teacher outlooks and preparation may assist, they are non the job. Teachers can merely make so much in the schoolroom but it is up to the parents to take over one time the childs get place. Without effectual engagement by at least one parent, Latino pupils will go on to fight, lose involvement, and non recognize the importance of instruction until possibly it is excessively late. Nesman ( 2007 ) identified the undermentioned factors as subscribers to student dropout rates: ( a ) pupil attitudes and behaviours, ( B ) household features, ( degree Celsius ) societal environments, ( vitamin D ) school constructions and policies, and ( vitamin E ) employment/career chances. Findingss in this survey revealed that negative interactions with school functionaries and deficiency of support for advancement in school as cardinal to dropping out. Negative interactions includes limited sum of clip or attempt in working with Latino pupils compared to other pupils, looks of low outlooks, and prejudiced subject. Lack of caring among parents, described as limited support and communicating about school, was besides named as a major subscriber to pupils ‘ determinations to drop out. However, pupils were speedy to support households supplying grounds such as long working hours and household state of affairss such as divorce or separation due to migration. The survey besides suggested that a household ‘s deficiency of experience with instruction reduces the sum of support they can supply for kids. On the other manus, the actions of lovingness and supportive grownups were mentioned as intercessions that encouraged pupils to go on seting attempt into school. The writer besides pointed out features of plans that are successful with Latino populations. These include regard for cultural backgrounds, high-quality course of study and staff, tutoring and mentoring with successful and caring function theoretical accounts, household and community engagement, and native linguistic communication support along with English linguistic communication development. Harmonizing to a Pew Research Center study, the biggest ground for the spread between the value Hispanics topographic point on instruction and their aspirations to complete school appears to come from fiscal force per unit area to back up a household ( Lopez, 2009 ) . About 74 % of all 16- to 25-year-old study respondents who cut their instruction abruptly during high school say they did so because they had to back up their households. Other grounds include hapless English accomplishments, a disfavor of school, and a feeling that they do n't necessitate more instruction for the callings they want. When asked why Latinos on norm do non make every bit good as other pupils in school, more respondents in the study incrimination hapless parenting and hapless English accomplishments than blasted hapless instructors. More than 61 % say a major ground is that parents of Latino pupils do non play an active function in assisting their kids win and about 58 % property it to limited English acco mplishments of Latino pupils. These parents do non deliberately disregard their kids, but because most of them ne'er graduated themselves, they do n't cognize how to assist their kids win. This is an country where parent engagement can do a difference. By promoting kids to remain in school alternatively of dropping out to work, Latino households can put in their hereafters instead than settle for short-run pay-offs. Unfortunately, it is a hard pick to do for households populating at or below the poorness degree. A Pew Hispanic Center study, â€Å" Latino Teens Staying in High School: A Challenge for All Generations † ( 2004 ) , stated the national Latino high school dropout rate of 21 % is more than twice the national norm at 10 % . A important ground attributed to the high dropout rate was less than favourable household fortunes and the communities in which they reside. Almost 10 % of Latino teens are non populating with a parent, more than twice the rate for white teens. Parents can frequently be an of import beginning of motive and information that promote high school completion. Merely 51 % of Latino kids have female parents who themselves have finished high school, in comparing to 93 % of white kids. Without a stable place environment and parents who can put a positive illustration or aid with school assignment, these marginalized pupils will go on to stay at a disadvantage compared to their equals. Chrispeels and Rivero ( 2001 ) did an exploratory survey on the consequence of immigrant parents ‘ sense of topographic point in their kids ‘s instruction after they attended a series of parental categories. These parents were given the chance to larn about the American educational system by go toing classs offered by the Parent Institute for Quality Education ( PIQE ) . The first determination from the survey was that parents indicated they had trouble assisting their kids with prep, particularly when the prep was in English. Delgado-Gaitan ( as cited in Chrispeels & A ; Rivero, 2001 ) found in her survey of Latino households that â€Å" parents were intimidated by the linguistic communication barrier posed by an all-English prep course of study. This bullying is a distancing factor in the parent-child relationships, which is important to a supportive system for kids. † Even if parents had the desire to assist, it was non possible because they could non read or un derstand the assignment. Another ground given by parents for non assisting with prep was that many worked, had several other kids, and small clip to help with prep. These working parents were anticipating the after-school plans to help the kids with completion of their prep so that when they got place they did non hold to worry about it. The PIQE classs enabled parents to derive consciousness of the benefits of prep and how they could supervise what the kid is larning. Additionally, parents learned it is of import to learn kids to give precedence to schoolwork and that giving the clip could convey satisfaction and a sense of achievement. The concluding result was increased parental engagement in the kid ‘s instruction, both at place and school. In decision, the survey suggests that it is possible for parents to develop higher degrees of battle with their kids, schools, and instructors. As they learn what is required for success in school, parents can put more specific ends for their kids. Kaplan, Turner, and Badger ( 2007 ) explored grounds for Latino misss ‘ elevated hazard for dropping out of high school. They focused on the relationships between their female parents and friends, academic accomplishment, grade of socialization, household environment, self-esteem, depression and ability to get by with emphasis to find if they had an influence on their attitudes about school. The literature revealed that Hispanic male childs and misss are three times more likely to drop out of high school than white or African American teens. This may ensue from school patterns such as differential intervention, low outlooks, and the school ‘s hapless communicating with parents of Latino teens sing their kids ‘s advancement every bit good as household force per unit areas. Latino misss ‘ perceptual experience of lower instructor support and higher household emphasis resulted in lower self-pride, disfavor of school and higher depression. Furthermore, De Las Fuen tes and Vasquez ( as cited in Kaplan, Turner, & A ; Badger, 2007 ) found that differential degrees of socialization appear to make parent-child struggle which has a peculiarly negative consequence on misss. Girls in peculiar are fearful of displeasing their parents as they try to absorb into American civilization. The consequences of the survey determined that a miss ‘s perceptual experience of mutualness with her female parent affected her attitude toward school. Girls who felt that their female parents were involved, understanding, and antiphonal to them were more likely to bask school and have higher overall classs. Not merely did the research confirm the importance of the mother-daughter relationship and its consequence on school accommodation, but it besides identified the demand to offer parental preparation to further this mutualness, and train instructors to be more cognizant of the effects of civilization. In decision, the literature explored many of the obstructions Latino pupils face in schools today. These barriers affect both their ability and desire to finish high school. There were three common subjects found among the barriers that contributed to the high dropout rates ( a ) environmental factors, ( B ) grounds built-in in the school system itself, and ( degree Celsius ) deficiency of parental engagement in instruction. The last component of parent engagement was looked at more closely to find grounds for deficiency of battle in kids ‘s acquisition procedure, and more significantly, to see if there is a possible connexion to Hofstede ‘s theoretical account of cultural dimensions. The undermentioned list summarizes some illustrations from the literature of Hispanics parents ‘ barriers to engagement in their kids ‘s instruction: trouble supervising pupils ‘ advancement and minimum communicating with the school ; rawness with educational systems ‘ policies and processs ; they do non cognize how to successfully step in since many are non graduates themselves ; unstable place environment and inability to supply positive educational function theoretical account ; trouble assisting kids with prep because of course of study and linguistic communication barriers ; small clip due to economic demand to work longer hours and other kids in the family ; outlooks that after-school plans will help kids with prep ; and different degree of socialization than their kids which can make a parent-child struggle. This list may assist explicate grounds for parents ‘ deficiency of engagement, but they do non reply the deep-seated causes for this type of behaviour. Could this be something immigrants brought with them from the old state and passed on from coevals to coevals? Possibly Hofstede ‘s power distance index from his Model of Cultural Dimensions can assist cast some visible radiation. As stated earlier, power distance measures the distribution of power and wealth between people in a state or civilization and seeks to show the extent to which ordinary citizens submit to authorization. Latin states, such as Mexico, with high power distance values rely on authorization figures to do determinations and clearly separate the functions of authorization figures from those governed. The line between ordinary citizens and those of higher societal position is seldom crossed, and fraternisation between the categories is frowned upon. Since most of the Latino immigrants were portion of the lower socioeconomic degrees in their native state, many may experience they can non alter their position in this state. As a consequence, it is possible they believe they are destined to stay in the same societal category and base on balls this attitude on to their childs. This type of self-fulfilling prognostication can be the major ground why Latino parents do non acquire involved in their kids ‘s educational development. Table 1 displays the grounds for parents ‘ deficiency of engagement and their position when viewed from a Hofstede power distance index lens. Table 1 Reasons for Non-Participation Viewed from Hofestede ‘s Power Distance Index Parents ‘ Reason for Lack of Participation Parents ‘ Point of View When Applying Hofstede ‘s Power Distance Index for Country with High Power Distance Value Trouble supervising pupils ‘ advancement and minimum communicating with school Not our topographic point to inquiry authorization, the disposal will guarantee pupils are having everything they need. Inexperience with educational systems ‘ policies and processs Rules and Torahs are made by the people in charge and they will guarantee schools do the right thing. Do non cognize how to successfully step in because many are non graduates themselves Parents do non prosecute or face, particularly with school functionaries. We understand and accept our function in society. Unstable place environment and inability to supply positive educational function theoretical account Family environment is unstable because of physical separation caused by work or in-migration. It is our fate in life to struggle-it is expected. Trouble assisting kids with prep because of course of study and linguistic communication barriers We can non understand the course of study or linguistic communication, but do non oppugn or inquire for aid. We assume the governments will step in if necessary. Small clip to assist pupils due to the economic demand to work longer hours. Besides many other kids in the family to look after It is more of import for households to take attention of life ‘s basic demands than to be concerned about unrealistic dreams of utilizing instruction to alter our societal position. Expectations that after-school plans will help kids with prep The authorities will take attention of educational demands and anything else they consider of import. They have their function and we have ours which is merely to work and take attention of our households. Parents have different degrees of socialization than their kids which can make a parent-child struggle Our childs are non following the proper ideals. They try to act like Americans, but they are non Americans. Their roots are Latino and they can non feign to be something else. The literature clarified many of the obstructions that Latino pupils have faced in U.S. schools, but there is non adequate accent and research on parental engagement in their kids ‘s educational promotion. This analysis revealed that the Hofstede theoretical account can be applied to this instance, but farther probe is still needed in this country. Possibly a more elaborate scrutiny comparing other facets of parents ‘ behaviour to GLOBE, Hall, or Kluckholn ‘s dimensions will assist impart support to this survey. The U.S. must acquire serious about turn toing the unacceptable Latino high school dropout rate job. During the following coevals, this nationality will go the largest minority group in the state. Without a solid educational foundation, Hispanics will stay in low-wage occupations and at the threshold of the poorness degree. The lone feasible solution to change by reversal this negative tendency is for parents to acquire involved in their kids ‘s instruction. Possibly they need to listen more, aid with prep, and emphasize the importance of instruction more frequently. As evidenced by the research, the actions of caring and back uping grownups encouraged pupils to set forth excess attempt in school. Unfortunately, many Latino parents do non cognize how to acquire involved so possibly it is clip for the authorities to step in. More support for plans such as the Parent Institute for Quality Education ( PIQE ) classs will assist parents derive an apprehension of the importance of in creased engagement in the kid ‘s instruction. By assisting parents develop higher degrees of battle with their kids, schools, and instructors, each wining coevals will larn what is required for success both in school and in life.

Racial Injustice In To Kill A Mockingbird Essay

To Kill a Mockingbird, by Nelle Harper Lee, was written in 1960. During the 1960’s great movements towards equality and integration were taking place, there was great social injustice towards African-Americans. This was Lee’s entire plot of the book he wanted to show how even when all evidence proofed a black man innocent when his word is faced the that of a white person or person of the privileged society, he will be found guilty. In To Kill a Mockingbird Lee wrote about a black man named Tom Robinson, who has been accused of raping a very poor white girl named Mayella Ewell, when in all actuality he did nothing but help her out. She made sexual advances towards him, and as he rejected Mayella’s father walked in and became outraged and began to beat her, scared half to death Tom ran, and later was wrongly accused, then convicted. This makes me ask, Can justice ever be colorblind? Being colorblind is not recognizing racial or class distinctions, this is an important part of finding true justice. Justice is the upholding of what is just, especially fair treatment and due reward in accordance with honor, standards, or law. People cannot be treated fairly when they are being judged by a bias society, especially when the bias is against them. People often relate with people with similar backgrounds, to the jury the Ewells had the most similar so it was only natural that they would be looked at as being truthful. ‘First of all,’ he said, ‘If you can learn a simple trick, Scout, you’ll get along a lot better with all kinds of folks. You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view-‘ ‘Sir?’ ‘-until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.'† Page 30. There Atticus was telling Scout the importance of being well rounded and learning about everyone, basically walking in there shows before you can fairly judge them. I don’t think Atticus could have put it any better, if people would just take the initiative to see things in the eyes of others before judging them it would make the judicial process a lot more fair. Although as a collective group of human beings, blacks and whites are more similar than different. We all have to look at the differences we have, that are placed on us by society and try to draw parallels. Once we find a parallel with these different groups we begin to stop looking at them as being a certain color and begin to look at them as being our equals or neighbors. When you really don’t know a group of people and all you do is hear stories about them, you allow that to shape your image of them. Such as Scout did with Boo, she had never seen him she was only told stories about and she still was terrified of him. â€Å"‘Thank who?’ I asked. ‘Boo Radly. You were so busy looking at the fire you didn’t know it when he put the blanket around you.’ My stomach turned to water and I nearly threw up when Jem held out the blanket and crept toward me. ‘He sneaked out of the house-turn ’round-sneaked up, an’ went like this!'† Page 72. She didn’t even know Boo all she did was heard stories, as a human she allowed the stories to shape a visual image for her. She saw Boo as a scary and inhuman, only because she didn’t know him, just like the people who held Tom on trail didn’t know him all they knew is stories about him and other black people so when they saw him on trail they saw him as another â€Å"ËÅ"Boo’. And, they judged him on the stories they hears about blacks not the validity of his suit. â€Å"Mr. Ewell wrote on the back of the envelope and looked up complacently to see Judge Taylor looking at him as if he were some fragrant gardenia in full bloom on the witness stand , to see Mr. Gilmer half-sitting, half standing at his table. The jury was watching him, one man leaning over with his hands over the railing. ‘What’s so intrestin’?’ he asked. ‘You’re left handed Mr. Ewell,’ said Judge Taylor.† Page 177. Mr. Ewell was a white man, he was also proven to be left handed in the heated court trail, this didn’t make any sense at first until it was proven that Mayella was beating by a left handed man, and Tom couldn’t use his left hand. Yet they did manage to find him guilty simply because they couldn’t relate to him because he was a black man he was the â€Å"ËÅ"Boo’. In the movie A Time To Kill, justice also isn’t blind. In the movie Samuel L.  Jackson’s daughter was raped by two white men, knowing that the men would get off if taken to trail Samuel took justice into his own hands and killed the both of them. If he hadn’t of killed the two man most likely they would have gotten off free, because they were in the deep south and blacks were looked at as less than human. If it hadn’t of been for his lawyer he might have gotten the chair, but his lawyer made sure everyone saw his murders as being an act of justice. All the jurors were made to think like a father who’s pride and joy had been raped, and once they did this they did begin to see him as a person. That doesn’t mean that the justice was blind to his color because had it been a white girl in the first place none of this would had happened, justice would have prevailed the first time, and he wouldn’t of had to take matters into his own hands. In both the movie and the novel the truth was there to be seen my the judging party, the parities just had to look past the color boundaries and accept it for the justice to be found. In the novel To Kill a Mockingbird the truth wasn’t found in time, however in the movie A Time To Kill justice was eventually found only after the loss of lives though. The death of the truly guilty party lead to the truth in both cases though. Recently in Cincinnati we have being going through a lot of civil unrest, and we have really been concentrating on color. Our judicial system has really had to look at race and racial profiling, because Cincinnatians are really tired of the justice system not being blind to race or class. With cases such as the Timothy Thomas case Cincinnatians have began to seek awnsers, and one sure fire awnsers is that race does matter. Now the people of Cincinnati are trying to get to a point where we can say it doesn’t. True justice can only be found when, race isn’t a factor that will play against someone being treated fairly. For race not to be a factor people must distinguish the difference between a person and the stereotypes they know about the persons race, and only know the facts about the struggle the particular person has had. As the book To Kill A Mockingbird said it is a sin to kill a mockingbird. The mockingbird being a innocent person that has done no wrong, just because a mockingbird is a bird doesn’t make it evil or worthy of death. Justice should be colorblind, its stated in the  Constitution but it isn’t always, in fact a lot of the time color is a major contributing factor, maybe as the world grows into one community everyone will drop the color barriers and race will become obsolete.

Chapter Questions

The approach suggesting that psychological disorders are illnesses that have underlying biological causes is called the:medical model is a condition marked by dramatic mood swings. Bipolar disorder The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders uses a checklist of observable signs and symptoms, but this tends to limit clinicians: understanding of their patients. Some theories propose that such as learning or childhood experiences might lay the foundation for psychological disorders. VIC : like poverty and community support systems, can play a role in the development and course of psychological disorders. Social factors The degree to which a behavior interferes with daily life and relationships refers to its: dysfunction. Classification system for mental disorders measures what it intends to A measure. Valid Ursula feels compel to hurt herself. Ursula self harm can be best described as a maladaptive behavior. With the people often predict the probability of something happening in the future based on how easily we can recall a similar type Of event from the past. Availability heuristic Most mental health professionals in North America use the evidenced-based classification system of mental disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders chapter 8 which is an rapidly sprout new connections among each other, a dramatic phase of synaptic growth that is influenced by the infants experiences and stimulation from the environment. Neurons One significant milestone of the seniority stage is or an infants realization that objects and people still exist when they are out of sight or touch. Object permanence According to Erikson, the psychosocial stage from the twenties to forties is called which is time when most adults are creating meaningful, deep relationships. Intimacy vs. isolation. The flex occurs when a newborn infants cheek is stroked, as she turns her head in the direction of the touch. Rooting Children in the stage can be less egocentric and can understand the concept of conservation; however their logical thinking is limited to concrete concepts. Encounter operational proposed that cognitive development occurs in four periods or stages, and these stages have distinct beginnings and endings. Pigged chapter 14 implies that disorders have biological causes. Medical model The treatment approach in which a client works with a mental health professional to reduce psychological symptoms and improve quality of life is allied: psychotherapy can have an impact on the course Of some psychological disorders. Terrors Studying is difficult because its methodology has not been personalized and its use varies from one therapist to the next. Humanistic therapy Approximately how many Inmates in American jails and prisons in 2007 had at least one psychological disorder? 2. Mm evaluates the success of therapies. Outcome research Your therapist tells you that her role in your therapy is to help you achieve personal growth. Your therapist is a: positive psychologist Dry. Astrid is a psychoanalyst. She tells her clients that her main goal is to:Uncover unconscious conflicts. The type of psychotherapy aimed at increasing awareness of the self and the environment is called: insight therapy Sean has a psychological disorder that increases his risk to himself and others. Sean most likely experiences: psychotic episodes. Chapter 15 to persuasion, people pay attention to factors outside the message content, such as the credibility or appearance of the individual who relays the message. Peripheral route People from cultures are less likely to conform than those from collectivist cultures. Individualist Participants in Amalgams obedience study sat at a table that held a control anal for the supposed generation of: shocks Social loafing is more likely to occur in societies where people place a high premium on:individuality and autonomy. The most famous illustration of the bystander effect was the attack on 1964. Kitty geneses studies were willing to administer what they believed to Participants in be painful and life-threatening electric shocks to other human beings. Algiers The diminished sense of personal responsibility, inhibition, or adherence to in social norms that occurs when group members are not treated as individuals is referred to as: identification. Which statement BEST characterizes social exchange theory? We help others when the benefits of our good deeds outweigh the cost. Group popularization is the tendency for a group to take a after deliberations and discussion. More extreme position In a classic study on expectations, administered a nonverbal intell igence test to students in a San Francisco elementary school. The students whom the teachers were told would show surprising gains achieved greater increases on their test scores. Rosenthal and Jacobson and its associated Stresses can have a lasting impact on the development of the brain and subsequent cognitive abilities. Poverty The method for gaining compliance that involves making a small request first, followed by a larger request is called the: foot in door technique Chapter 12 Gender intense physiological demands, the body cannot address any new threats, and some people start to show signs of such as hypertension and arthritis. Sissies of adaptation does not require participants to retrieve information from the distant past, thus reducing opportunities for error in memory. Prospective study Chapter 11 Some aspects of adult personality appear to derive from which refers to distinct patterns of emotional reactions and behaviors observed early in life. Temperament The collection of rules that guide the ego as it negotiates between the id an d the environment is called the: reality principle If a parent is too harsh or lenient about toilet training, the child may grow up with a(n) personality, being rule-bound or stingy. Anal retentive Karen Horned believed that people respond to feelings of helplessness and isolation, created by inadequate parenting, which she referred to as: basic anxiety have profound interpersonal relations, maintaining deep and lasting friends pips. Self- actualities A distinct pattern of emotional reactions and behaviors observed early in life is called a(n): temperament According to Freud, awareness is equivalent to: conjunctions is impulsive and illogical. D According to Freud, one resolves the Oedipus or Electra complex during the: genital stage According to Adler, not everyone is successful in overcoming feelings of helplessness and dependence, but instead develop what is known as a(n): inferiority complex Your professor is talking about how Freudian theory intersects with cognitive theory. He uses the example of the which forms a bridge between memory and conscious awareness. Episodic buffer You are drawing a diagram of Frauds structures. Which structure would appear at the top? The superego re primal images, patterns of thoughts, and storyline stored in the collective unconscious. Archetypes You are writing a paper titled Frauds theory of the emergence of unconscious thoughts in conscious thinking. You are arguing that u nconscious thoughts can appear in consciousness via: process among awareness perspective emphasizes relationships, environmental influences, individual behavior, and mental processes that come together to form personality. Social-cognitive you think about going out instead of studying but then you consider what it would be like to get a poor grade. According to Freud, the helped you come to this conclusion.

Apply the legal parameters and ethical nursing implications of therapy Case Study

Apply the legal parameters and ethical nursing implications of therapy with selected pharmacotherapeutic agents - Case Study Example The drug has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. Up to this point, there should be drug laws and restrictions governing the use of drugs. It is very useful when making ethical decisions to understand the different considerations that are involved with every individual. Importance of Ethical Theory in Nursing Nursing ethics tend to be on the side of caring rather than curing. In nursing theories, everything is focused on virtues that make a good nurse. The theories can be applied by the nurses in different areas to make decisions in health care institutions. These ethical theories are applied between a nurse and a patient. It is the reality that nursing ethics emphasize the day to day ethics practiced other than the moral dilemmas. The nursing ethics help in giving care and support and in the relationship with the patients. This helps the people to make their informed consent on treatment (Lilley, Collins, Harrington & Snyder (2010). Ethical theory hel ps the nurses develop a respect and dignity for people and their autonomous choices and to practice confidentiality where by information is only shared with permission. Steps in Ethical Decision-Making Model There are eight steps in ethical decision–making model. They are found clearly in American Nurses Association Code of Ethics as a guideline for protecting both nurse and patient. Step one is Identifying the problem and considering if it is in reality ethical or not. It involves the perception of the situation where by different people are involved in the discussion of the problem that is encountered (Lilley et al., 2010). The consideration of ideas is on the scientific experience and the quantity of the medical and nursing situation. Second step is the problem identification. This analyzes what happened in the first step on the history of the patient in relation to the problem. Step three is the review and consideration of the ethical codes. This step helps in the value a nalysis by assessing the general ethical values. It helps to understand the conflicting values involved. Step four is to be familiar with the laws and regulations as well as that of the institution. It basically stands a better chance of making a personal choice of letting people know about the fact of what you did, what is right or wrong about you and how you would feel either guilty or ashamed? Step five is seeking consultation in determining the personal choices (Todd, 2010). Step six is a consideration of possible action and reactions on the side of explaining moral arguments about one’s choice. It helps one to develop hypothesis and reach a conclusion. Step seven is foreseeing the results of the actions on the options and contemplations on decision limited on the demand on the patient. A good consideration is the impact of every action taken regarding the values. Last step is on the decision action after carefully gathering information and facts and familiarizing oneself with the circumstances. It is involved in the final decision about the situational change on the patient, the things that should be improved and evaluation of the decision for further discussion. Nurse’s response to patient’s statement made in question D is on the techniques of therapeutic communication whereby the nurse should use a broad opening statement by encouraging the patient to open up and express himself further. The nurse should not make an assumption to its meaning but

Pros and Cons of Government Safety Regulations Essay

Pros and Cons of Government Safety Regulations - Essay Example Governments set strict rules for companies that run businesses involving the emission of toxic chemicals that may cause pollution or pose threats to humans and natural resources. An example is the regulations and standards set by EPA (2015) on carbon emissions. Regulations that limit the levels of wastes or emission serve to protect people from infections or depletion of other ecosystems. Second, safety regulations in business services limit the movement of goods in the market to prevent possible harm to consumers. Safety regulations serve to ensure uncertified products do not get to the market. In the health sector, safety regulations ensure only qualified practitioners provide services. Furthermore, safety regulations ensure that medications supplied to consumers are in the best conditions to attend to the condition. In essence, safety regulations serve the interest of consumers. Although they are essential, safety regulations also have varied challenges. Among the notable disadvan tages is the interference with the optimization of goods. Safety regulations are disadvantageous because they cause high prices of goods. The supply of goods and services is highly likely to be subject to interference under safety regulations. There are possible cases of shortages of goods and services that are subject to government safety regulations. That, consequently, causes an increase in the price of goods and services.  

English - Eating disorder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

English - Eating disorder - Essay Example In effect, both Pollan’s book The Omnivore’s dilemma: a natural history of four meals illustrated that the source of our food is becoming a factory and is no longer grown the way it used to be. Worst, industrial farm factory and the use of GMOs are even packaged to be a better food source than organic farming. This kind of food production or factorization of food instead of growing food has changed the eating pattern of America that it could now be construed as eating disorder. This is evidenced by the growing number of obesity that has already assumed the proportion of an epidemic whose main caused is our penchant for junk foods. Instead of eating the traditional healthy foods such as fruits, vegetables and cereals, we are now more predisposed to eating fast foods which are littered with oil, trans fat and glucose. Strangely, we have grown aversion towards healthy foods such as vegetables and increased our appetites towards hamburgers and pizzas. As a result, Cardiovascular diseases and diabetes are on the rise and the people that are having diabetes are getting younger and younger and this can be traced back to our eating disorder precipitated by factorization or the change how our foods are produced instead of

Economic, Social, and Political Change Worksheet Essay

Economic, Social, and Political Change Worksheet - Essay Example Changes in western politics are incorporated, that spread across the region through interaction in liberalism and community manifestos despite the repression by conservatives and the venture of political struggle and realpolitiks. Following a shift from subsistence to commercial farming, in the beginning of the 16th century, there was improvement in livestock management, as well as introduction new rotations, which paved in a way for more production from traditional to modern practices in Agriculture (Bayliss-Smith &Wanmali, 1984). The earlier open field systems had laid the foundation for the farming shift in Europe, though it was later replaced by enclosed fields and more compact farms, it was part of basis in revolution. Most part of Northern and Eastern Europe experienced temperate climatic conditions, apart from the leveled plains and hills that could contain deeper soils to support Agricultural revolution. The society saw a great change in population growth following the massive production of food. The mortality rate was high with the entire population increasing at a higher rate than food production. â€Å"In 1800, Europe had about 190 million people; by 1850, 250 million. By 1914, it had 460 million† (Perry, Chase, Jacob, Jacob, & Laue, 2009, p. 501). The industrial revolution was initially attributed to the population growth in society which provided adequate labor force to produce enough resources from agriculture, to industries for processing and manufacturing. Mechanization also played its role, allowing the introduction of machineries, and more advanced equipments for use in factories and farming; the steam engines were invented to pump water from the mines. Trade intensified following demand of food and other products from the population, which forced industrial revolution in the region and other parts of the world. Between

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Understanding Plot - Assignment Example Loisel (Mathilde’s husband) comes with an attendance invitation to the splendid ball. Mathilde reacts to this invitation by throwing a fit. The conflict arises because Mathilde has the chance of tasting the high and good life, but she lacks something to put on. This conflict sets the story in motion Mathilde’s husband solves the problem by giving her money to buy a dress. However, a second problem arises; she needs some jewelry. Fortunately for her, Mme (her friend) lends her a fabulous diamond necklace. The complication arises since Mathilde has been given something expensive by someone and she has to take care of it. This scene illustrates the potential for a complication. Mathilde’s mingling with the rich was the best moment of her life. The necklace gets lost, and the moment of happiness turns into a desperate search for the missing necklace. This scene implies that things will not end well. This is the story’s climax. We (the audience) are always kept in suspense after the necklace gets lost. First, there is the frantic search for the lost necklace; will they find it? When it dawns that the necklace will not be found, the question which pops up is; what will they (Loisels) do? Will they look for a replacement or what? If they find the replacement, how will they pay for it? As it turns out, paying for the lost necklace takes a toll on their lives for a period of ten years. It looks like the conflict is over when Mathilde finally meets Forestier Mme at the Champs Elysees. The Loisels finally have finished making payments for the necklace. This illustrates that the main action is finally over. Mathilde is anxiously waiting to see if her friend recognizes the substitute. Contrary to the audience’s expectations, things turn out differently. Some critics imply that the twist ending in the story is the climax. However, the twist ending is the conclusion of this story and not its climax. Unlike most other stories, the conclusion

Family in Europe History Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

Family in Europe History - Coursework Example In case a family was already on a high rung in a social ladder, a smart marriage arrangement could be highly advantageous through a thoughtful market strategy. As time passed over the centuries, there was a slow and gradual change towards more freedom of choice and a much greater acceptance of love as a basis for marriage. Parents had every say in the matter in choosing a partner as well as bargaining about the dowry. The general notion was that unless a person could afford to get married they should, otherwise it was not advisable. Though parents took trouble in working out a marriage for their children, the youngsters met their lovers in the fields, barns, at the fairs and even on pilgrimages. Most marriages took place between members of the same religion, nationality and caste. It is rather surprising to note that the word family did not mean blood relations or related by marriage, but the Latin word â€Å"famulus† referred to a domestic establishment’s live – in staff. Until the 19th century, Europeans did not do away with the meaning of family, but as the idea of kinship took shape, the meaning of â€Å"family† took on a whole new perspective while the old meaning has become obsolete in these modern times. In the past a household was not only the private residence of a family, but also a place for the public eye. Historians having worked on demographic data between the 16th and 19th centuries and have put to rest the common notion that people lived in very large households compared to the micro families of today. After much investigation, they have come to rest on the fact that families were of two kinds – small or average and large families. The small families in Europe had one or two children while the large families had about seven to ten members. However, when comparing the rural and urban households, they found that most of the people in the urban areas preferred to have small families comprising of one or two

Issues Faced by Operations Managers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Issues Faced by Operations Managers - Essay Example Shortage of funds in financial market can create a problem for managers because supply of money in company leads to different financial activities. Continuous supply is very important for any company to operate. Managers also need to know that what their competitors are doing in the industry. They can't ignore competition around them in this dynamic world. Managers need to be informed that what they are doing in terms of Product development, Pricing, Marketing strategies and many more things. Any type of activity that the competitors do can create lots of problem for the managers. Every organization has an aim to be Global. Managers need to face many difficult situations when they are in foreign countries. They need to tackle certain factors for success when they are abroad. That includes Legal/Political Environment, Economic Environment and Cultural Environment. While going Global managers need to understand the Political and Legal uncertainties in the country they are doing their business. They should be aware of the Specific Legal laws of that country because if they don't know the Legal procedures of that country it can create many problems for them. Many countries have a history of unstable governments therefore managers face dramatically greater uncertainty as a result of political instability. For example the goal of one government is to nationalize the important sectors of the country where as the goal of the other government is to have free enterprises to promote free market economy. Economic environment can also affect manager's decision. The three most important factors in affecting manager decision are Fluctuating currency exchange rates, Inflation Rate and Tax policies. If the country has a high inflation rate in which they are operating can result in high productivity cost which can ultimately decrease their profits. Tax policies are the most concerning for managers. If tax policies are restrictive managers can face challenging situations. Managers need exact information of tax rules so that they can overcome with all the tax obligations.Managers also need to understand the culture of the country in which they are operating. Different countries have different cultures and managers must know they difference of each culture. This is very important factor for managers to take care of, because if they fail to understand the cultural values of that country they can't serve their products and services to the people of that country. For example if a company who is manufacturing Alcohol and is operating in USA and then they open a branch of their company in Saudia Arabia, But as Saudia Arabia is an Islamic State they can't sell the Alcohol in that country because they cultural and religious values doesn't allow them to drink, that can create huge problem for the managers of that company. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: Today's organizations are moving towards social responsibility. Managers have to be careful while going for socially responsible because being socially responsi

Migratory Behavior of Mallard Ducks Essay Example for Free

Migratory Behavior of Mallard Ducks Essay There are four fundamental decisions that most animals make when it comes to mechanisms of adaptation: where to live, how to gather food, how to avoid predators, and what tactics to use to reproduce (Alcock, 1993). Habitat preferences in animals require satisfying their needs (ignoring or actively avoiding others, nutritional needs to perform growth, development and reproduction) at the same time experiencing higher fitness than those unable to settle in the favored habitat. There were also several hypothesis presented which correlates habitat preference and fitness. The seasonal dispersion of some animals like ducks is a costly business in terms of energetic expenses and risk to exposure to predators. On the other hand, considering dispersal cost, animals that do not respond to dispersion pay the price of deterioration due to the inability to adapt to the prevailing ecological conditions. Considering the inbreeding avoidance hypothesis (Ralls et. al, 1979), on ducks in particular, Mallard ducks may have migrated then for the purpose of expanding their genetic pool by interbreeding with Anas rubipes a close relative of the Anas playrynhos. The costly dispersal of Mallards may have been to avoid inbreeding depression primary of which is to circumvent the expression of damaging recessive alleles resulting from the mating of two closely related mates of the same species. This further correlates with the mate competition hypothesis (Moore and Ali, 1984), which states that males tend to fight against one another for mates therefore looser find it more energy efficient to seek closely related species to which they may successfully mate. When mating season is over, male disperses to avoid their daughters when these female become sexually mature. Animals engage into energetically exhaustive activity trying to complete the course of their journey to attain its fundamental goals. As the animal arrives to its destination, the issue of territoriality always comes to mind whenever a new species is introduced into a new environment and every time the visitor interacts with the native. While other animals ignore or tolerate the presence of a new species in its territory, others are extraordinarily aggressive in defending their territory from intruders. Territoriality among animals contributes to reproductive successes or failure to the contrary which further leads to interspecific competition. If suitable breeding sites really are short of supply, then one should be able to find non-territorial, non-breeding, individuals in populations of territorial animals. If this is so, the niche similarity of the visitors to the native may introduce interspecific competition with the available supplies. Territoriality may also influence the reproductive success of these visitors as it was found by Dhondt and Schillemans (1983). Territorial animals may invade the nesting sites of migratory birds which may lead to decreased viability and clutch. The ability of birds to fly and survive various environmental conditions has led to their development over time. Seasonal migration of mallard ducks (Anas platyrynchos) has been one of the intriguing aspects of its behavior. This behavior has been influenced mainly by several factors such as foraging (Heitmeyer, 2006), competition (Mc Auley, et al. , 2004), reproductive behaviors (Hill, 1984) which also includes the preservation of nesting sites, and interbreeding (Brodsky, 1989) and seasonal weather conditions (Ridgill, et al. , 1990 in D. Hill, 1992, Whyte Bolen, 1984, Poiani Johnson, 1991). Statement of the Problem From previous articles, it has been reported that Mallard ducks are reoccupying old territories throughout the United States and Canada (Talent, et. al. , 1983). From this observation, it can be inferred that various ecological changes in both habitat and inhabitants may take place. Since mallard ducks in this regard are annual visitors in these habitats, the temporary habitation of previous and new territories may significantly affect native animal species. With the combined hypothesis that Mallard ducks migrate from previously occupied territories due to overlapping conditions which may occupy new territories due to insufficiency of the previous, the study will assess the behavioral patterns of Mallard ducks towards returning to previous foraging territories and establishing new foraging regions (migratory routes) outside of their original habitats, specifically the study will address four major areas of concern. 1. What behavior of the Anas playrynchos determines the suitability of a habitat to be considered sufficient which helps it decide to inhabit previous foraging territories and new regions outside of their original habitats? 2. What behavioral mechanism will the Anas platyrynchos exhibit upon visiting a previous foraging territory and new regions outside of their original habitats if a highly territorial organisms was encountered upon landing? 3. What general behavioral model applies during the interaction of two closely related species (Anas rubipes and Anas platyrynchos) occupying the same niche in terms of: a. Reproductive tactics b. Foraging preferences c. Territoriality 4. What chances that the introduction of less territorial animal may cause significant adaptive stress (competitive stress) to a more territorial species? Hypotheses It is hypothesized that there is no significant differences in the previously reported behavioral mechanisms in Anas platyrynchos that helps it determine to decide on its habitat preferences. Alternatively, Anas platyrynchos establishes new migratory routes due to impending factors such as avoidance of predators, seasonal weather conditions, reproductive tactics and foraging preferences. Else, Anas platyrynchos establishes new migratory route or return to previous foraging areas due to certain conditions such as habitat destruction, scarcity of supplies needed to reproduce, and extreme territoriality between natives and migrants. Experimental Design In order to test these hypotheses, the study will be divided into two phases: the in vivo phase and in vitro phase. At the in vitro phase, groups of experimental populations of Mallard ducks will be placed in a study area which will allow observation of significant behavioral patterns relevant to foraging, reproductive tactics/quality such as mate preference, clutch size, egg size and viability, and interspecific competition. Two species of closely related species of ducks the Anas rubipes (native, will be allowed to acclimatize until such time that they one or two reproductive cycles have been achieved) and Anas platyrynchos (introduced species, will be introduced only after the native have been acclimatized well) will be situated in the same habitat which will be observed for close interaction. Behavioral patterns on mate preferences and competitive exclusion will be observed by on-site observation using a hidden observation platform. Foraging preferences will be looked upon by collection and analysis of droppings from both species. Geographical invasion of feeding territories will be looked upon by assigning quadrat areas which will be initially determined by the territorial preferences of both species of ducks. Territoriality will be measured by the number of times the more aggressive native will disturb the nesting sites of the migrants and the instance that the migrant will be driven away from a specific foraging site. Specific effects of such behavior will be measured by performing initial and final biometry of the two species of ducks. Decrease in biometric qualities from both adult and eggs would mean the inability to adapt into such competitive behavior. Possible effects of migrant foraging on native non-avian species will also be observed by recording the feeding activity of non-avian species living along the vicinity which might directly contribute to the promotion or disruption of the food chain brought about by the introduction of a new consumer. To observe the habitat preference of ducks with is natural behavior in its intact natural behavior, the in vivo phase will be done. Radio satellite transceivers will be wing banded on representative Anas platyrynchos through catch and tag method (including the alpha male) that are about to engage into seasonal journey to trace their possible destinations and stop-over. The result will be compared to previous annual migration data (20 years in succession or more depending on the available information) to establish a pattern supporting the behavioral mechanism that the ducks employ in selecting a habitat which sooth their preference. On site visitation of previously reported migration destinations will be surveyed to confirm habitation of previously occupied regions. Ecological evaluation and mapping of visited areas (stop-over and final destination) will be done and compared with other visited areas for specific pattern. Thorough monitoring of migration paths via remote sensing will be followed to confirm if ever there is a change in the migratory route. Conclusions will be based on the assessment of significant differences between the previously reported data and the novel information. Summary All in all, birds may move to various locations for survival. If the prevailing conditions decrease fitness, migratory ducks may move to different locations to continue to find food, reproduce and avoid predation. When the conditions increase fitness, these ducks will then return to their natal site where they will breed and raise their young. It may be that physical conditions and forces that govern the earth’s magnetic poles, hormonal changes, changing weather patterns or other various factors contribute to the birds urge to migrate to their seasonal habitats. For the purpose of this paper, the most important factor to be considered are the consequences to native animals belonging in the same niche brought about by abrupt or gradual changes in migratory routes and the resulting occupation of new or old territories. In the evolutionary perspective, animals are able to adapt into their environment mainly by employing specific behavioral mechanisms that would enable them to perfectly cope. At the event that an animal fails to establish equilibrium with its environment, serious complications arise. The study will better establish significant behavioral patterns in Mallard ducks which enable to blend in and adapt in variable habitats. Such adaptive behavior may serve as a key towards preserving animal species that are in danger of extinction simply because the adaptive behavior is not appropriate for survival. References Cited Alcock, John. 1993. Animal Behavior: an evolutionary approach, 5th ed. Sinauer Associates, USA. 279-379. Dhondt A. A. , and J. Schillemans. 1983. Reproductive success of the great tit in relation to its territorial status. Animal Behavior 31:902-912. Heitmeyer, M. E. 2006. The Importance of Winter Floods to Mallards in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management. Vol. 70, No. 1. pp. 101-110. Hill, David. 1992. Cold Weather Movements of Waterfowls in Western Europe. The Journal of Animal Ecology, Vol. 61, No. 1. Feb. , pp. 238-239. Hill, D. A. 1984. Population Regulation in the Mallard (Anas platyrynchos). Journal of Animal Ecology. 53. pp. 191-202. Mc Auley, D. G. , et. al. 2004. Dynamic use of wetlands by black Mallards: Evidence Against Competitive Exclusion. Wildlife Society Bulletin. Vol. 32. , No. 2. pp. 465-473. Poiani, K. A. , Johnson, W. C. 1991. Global Warming and Prairie Wetlands. BioScience, Vol. 41, No. 9. Oct. pp. 611-618. Talent, L. G. , et. al. 1983. Survival of Mallard Broods in South-Central North Dakota. The Condor, Vol. 85, No. 1. Feb. , 1983, pp. 74-78. Whyte, R. J. , and Bolen, E. G. 1984. Impact of Winter Stress on Mallards Body Composition. The Condor, Vol. 86, No. 4. pp. 477-482. Moore, J. , and R. Ali. 1984. Are dispersal and inbreeding avoidance related? Animal behavior 32:94-112. Ralls, K. , et. al. 1979. Inbreeding and juvenile mortality in small populations of ungulates. Science 206: 1101-1103.

Different Religions of the World Essay Example for Free

Different Religions of the World Essay There are many religions in the world. They practice many different ways. There is Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. I like to study about different religions. Islam worships the God Allah, which means God in Arabic Muslims religion is Islam. Mohammed is the prophet to follow and he was the last prophet. Muslims have three holidays. There is Ramadan, Eid and Eid-el-haj. Each year all the Muslims go to Mecca. Muslims believe women should not show their bodies, this keeps the men from sinning. Muslims holly book is the Qur’an. All Muslims pray five times a day and every Friday go to mosque. Muslims must pray in Arabic. Judaism was founded in Israel by a man named Abraham. Jews worship God. Jews have a holly book called Torah. Jews do not believe the Messiah has come yet. They speak and read Hebrew, and do it the most for prayer. Jews pray in a particular way. They have a special holiday called Hanukkah, which is the same as Christmas in America. The different thing is they use a menorah. A menorah holds candles that Jews light each night of Hanukkah. Jews have special celebrations called bar and bat mitzvahs too. This is a family celebration of a boy or girl celebrating being grown up. The new man or woman must prove themselves by saying parts of the Torah. Jews eat special food called kosher and is blessed by their preacher who is called Rabbi. This is for God. Christianity was founded in Israel by Jesus of Nazareth. Christians worship God just like the other religions. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God. Christians can be free and pray when they feel the need. However, most still attend church, which is like a Muslims mosque. Christians celebrate two religious Holidays Easter and Christmas. Easter is the celebration when Jesus rose on the third day. There is also Good Friday and most things close on this day. Christmas is the celebration of Jesus’ birth. Jesus was born in a manor in Bethlehem, and his mother was Marry. Her husband was Joseph. Jesus was a gift from God because he was born of a virgin. Even though Christians are free, they still have strong faith. In conclusion, all of these religions have their own special ways, but the important part is that they all worship God. God is who made this world. These religions just worship God in a different way from each other. They also live life in a little different way. This is what makes the world special. I am Muslim, but I also like learning about different religions.

Intake Manifold of the Internal Combustion Engine

Intake Manifold of the Internal Combustion Engine Abstract Intake manifold of the Internal Combustion engine is a subsystem which supplies fresh air-fuel mixture into the engine cylinders where combustion of fuel takes place. For Efficient Combustion of the charge, the walls of the intake manifold must be smooth/polished to reduce any sidewall resistance. The traditional materials used for intake manifolds were cast iron and Aluminum. In order to reduce manufacturing costs and improve thermal efficiency, new composites are proposed. Inside the cylinder, the energy generated from combustion of fuel is converted into pressure and heat during the power stroke. The pressure and heat increase rapidly within a short span of time. The piston converts this energy into mechanical work. In place of the traditional aluminum alloys, Al-SiC material is proposed which have superior properties. Exhaust manifold is responsible to remove the depleted charge and create space for the incoming charge. Materials used in exhaust systems of engines must have High Temperature Service capability, superior fatigue strength, and good fracture toughness, be easily machinable and economic considering the overall cost of the automobile. Mo-Nb added ferritic stainless steel is a new material that is gaining reputation for its high formability and high heat-resistance. Introduction Internal Combustion Engine is a complex machine that does mechanical work when the air-fuel mixture is ignited under high pressure. The Air-Fuel mixture is sent into the Combustion chamber through the intake manifold which is responsible to maintain proper supply of ignition charge into the engine always. The structure of the intake manifold must be such that it has low sidewall friction and maintains lower temperature so that the charge doesnt pre-ignite. The piston is the component that creates the necessary horsepower inside the engine. It must be light weight and must have good thermal properties. The exhaust manifold deals with the hot gases coming out the combustion chamber. It must be able to maintain flow of exhaust gases without any hindrance. Failure in the exhaust system can cause loss of back pressure which can significantly affect engine performance. Intake Manifold 1. Introduction Intake manifold in the car engine is the system which supplies fresh air into the engine cylinders where combustion of fuel happens. The Intake Manifolds in Internal Combustion engines are one of the most engineered components. High precision is needed to efficiently send right amount of cold, high pressure air in equal quantities and at the same pressure. Earlier generations of cars had intake manifolds made from cast iron, which were heavy. In high volume production cars, the use of injection molded composite intake manifolds has been increasing rapidly. [1] AE 587 Final Research Report Winter 2017 Material Selection for Intake Manifold, Piston Exhaust Manifold Tarun Krishna Prabhakar, Rohit Vedachalam, Pranav Radhakrishna Figure 1: Intake manifold made from Nylon 6,6 [23] An intake manifold is an integrated unit of any engine, made up of a series of tubes/ducts which distribute fuel-air mixture to each cylinder. For V-shaped engine blocks, intake manifold is integrated between the two cylinder rows whereas inline engines have manifolds to side of cylinder head. Intake manifolds also perform as mounting points for Fuel injectors/carburetors, thermostats, throttle assembly depending on the manufacturers engineering designs. Because of the location and functions, intake manifold assemblies experience constant stress from the engine vacuum pressure as direct heat from cylinder combustion gases, and the cylinder head. Figure 2: Evolution of Intake Manifold over the years[24] Until 1990s, most automotive intake manifold assemblies were made from Cast Iron because of lower cost, or from Aluminum which has lighter weight is required for performance/efficiency. Intake manifolds made from plastic began to gain popularity during 1990s because they offered lower weight and cost combined. They were Factory installed when auto-manufacturers figured out how to manufacture them so that they are durable enough to survive high stresses. [2] Aluminum is robust metal, but it has few drawbacks. Namely, 1.) It is cheaper to manufacture intake manifolds with advanced composite molding plants than cast out of Aluminum.2.) Composites have superior heat retention and heat resistance compared to Aluminum and other metals. This means that Phenolic spacers used in previous aluminum intakes are no longer required.3.) Smoother airflow with lower sidewall resistance compared to Aluminum casting, which requires high level of polishing to achieve same flow of air. However, there are few disadvantages:1.) Composites are more flexible, more prone to damage.2.) Composites or plastics are cheap and deemed unattractive. Dissimilar materials such as plastic, aluminum, and iron all have different expansion and contraction rates as they change temperature, so gaskets that provide a seal between an intake manifold and a metal cylinder head must be flexible and durable enough to withstand serious pulling and twisting forces. Early ones were not, and leaks resulted along with warpage under intense heat that eventually led to cracks. Therefore, composites offer several advantages. they saves money, reduces weight, ease of assembly, better insulation, improved airflow, excellent strength to weight ratio, and is recyclable. 1.2. Material Comparison [3] Properties comparison for PA6 (dry/humid), AL 6082 T6 and 316 stainless respectively: Yield strength (MPa): 80/45, 260, 290Elongation at failure (%): 70/200, 8, 50Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa): 85/48, 310, 579Charpy impact toughness (J/square cm): 0.7/8, 10.6, 134 1.3. Existing Material and Process Material: 319F Aluminum Cast Component: Aluminum Intake Manifold Process: Semi Permanent Mold Casting For a Manifold of an opposed cylinder layout, Intake Manifold alone weighs 4.5 kgs and with the Phenolic spacers it weighs 8.2 kgs. The casting is done by Gravity Tilt Pour process, which can achieve minute thickness upto 3mm. [4] 319F Aluminum is an alloy comprised of 6% Silicon and 3.5% Copper and Iron ( Table 1: Properties of 319F Aluminum [26] For Aluminum, permanent mold process can be utilized to have sand cores to create complex castings. Die castings cannot use cores made of sand. If cores are used in the permanent molding process, it is sometimes as called semi-permanent molding as the mold is permanent but new cores must be made for the next batch. Permanent mold casting is one of the low-cost method of producing any Aluminum casting. Generally, Permanent mold castings are better than simple sand castings when the factors like ultimate and yield strength are compared. They have better elongation, which is good for ductility. Even appearance of Aluminum in permanent mold castings is better than appearance of castings made from sand casting process, which translates that lesser machining and polishing is required after casting. The cast is made using a single core. The passageway core is made by coldbox process for making cores, main body core is a blown core type and the external core is made using semi-permanent mold process with three solid cores and one internal passageway core. Below is a picture of the finished Aluminum Air Intake Figure 3: Aluminum Air Intake [25] 1.4. Proposed Material and Manufacturing Process Material: A-6135 HN PPA(PolyPhthalAmide) Cast Component: Composite Intake Manifold Process: Thermoforming Nowadays, Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) use PA6 or PA66 is used for intake manifolds. In the performance aftermarket, there is possible use of engine performance enhancers like nitrous oxide or turbocharging or supercharging, so perhaps a higher-grade composite would be more appropriate. A-6135 HN polyphthalamide (PPA) is a 35% glass reinforced resin which is heat stabilized. Main properties of this resin are high strength, high stiffness, and high heat resistance over a broad temperature range. It also exhibits low moisture absorption, good against chemical action and electrical properties. AMODEL A-6135 HSL polyphthalamide acts as a solution to both performance and processing requirements. At elevated temperature and humid conditions, the tensile strength of A-6135 resin is 20% stronger than nylon 6, and much stronger than nylon 66. The flexural modulus of this compound is a minimum of 20% greater than stiffness of nylon 6 or 66. [6] Figure 4: Tensile strength and Flexural strength comparison between composites [26] For current generation vehicles, plastic intake manifolds are made using the injection molding process. Thermoforming is explored as an alternative to injection molding for making intake manifold shells, which can then be joined by one of the welding techniques used for thermoplastic materials. There is now an increasing trend in integrating several components, such as fuel injection, in engine air/fuel modules. The assembly of these components is achieved via either snap fits or threaded fasteners. Increased integration is generally associated with increasing shape complexity. The advantages of shell design in the integration approach are lower number of fasteners required. Figure 5: Thermoformed Shell type vs Lost Core Design [27] 1.5. Thermoforming Figure 6: Shows thermoforming principle [28] It is a manufacturing process in which a plastic sheet is heated to a temperature where it melts and is flowable, to make molding into any predefined shape/pattern and the flash is trimmed to get the final product. Thinner gauges and other materials too are heated in an oven to high temperature which allows the film to stretch or mold and cooled to a final shape. In Thermoforming, Vacuum forming is the simplest method. [8] Press forming is another type of thermoforming process which is used in work like the sheet metal stamping. Matching metal die set is used here. Preheated plastic sheet is placed on the bottom die and the top die is lowered to close the mold. The hot Plastic sheet gets stretched as the mold closes and then drawn into the shape of die. The sheet is allowed to cool down to take its final shape. For Complex geometries, the component is divided into 2-3 layers where the molded parts can be assembled and held together by means of fasteners or adhesives. Figure 7: Dies used for Manufacturing Shell type Molding of Intake manifolds [29] Figure 8: Finished Air intake manifold made of PPA [30] Figure 9: Comparison of PPA and Aluminum intake manifolds [31] Automotive Pistons 2.1. Introduction In the cylinder of an engine, the energy of the fuel is converted into pressure and heat during the power stroke. The pressure and heat values increase rapidly within a short interval of time. The piston converts the same into mechanical work [9]. The pistons structure consists of piston crown, ring belt, skirt and piston boss as shown in Figure1.1. During the power stroke, the forces resulting from the combustion of fuel-air mixture are transferred from the piston crown to piston boss, piston pin, connecting rod and finally to the crankshaft [9]. Figure 10: Engine piston [9]. 2.2. Forces on piston The forces acting on the piston are, oscillating inertia forces of the piston and the connecting rod (FK), piston force in the direction of the connecting rod (FST) and lateral force or normal force (FS). During the working cycle, the direction of lateral force changes several times, which oscillates the piston from one end of the cylinder bore to the other, due to the existing piston clearance [9]. Figure 11: Forces on the piston [9]. 2.3. Temperatures in piston Temperature is an important parameter for the operational safety and service life of a piston. The exhaust gas temperatures, even though is present only for a short period, can exceed more than 2,200ÂÂ °C. In gasoline engines, the exhaust gas temperatures range between 800ÂÂ °C to 1,050ÂÂ °C, and 600ÂÂ °C to 850ÂÂ °C for diesel engines [9]. Figure 12:ÂÂ   Temperature distribution in a gasoline engine piston [9]. Figure 13:ÂÂ   Temperature distribution in a diesel engine piston [9]. 2.4. Failures of internal combustion engine pistons Failure of piston is one of the prime reasons for engine breakdown. The failure may occur at different mileage and operating conditions which are usually caused by material defects, engineering, and operational errors. Common causes of piston failures include: 1) insufficient cooling and lubrication of the piston, 2) thermal fatigue, 3) incorrect combustion process, 4) mechanical damage [10]. Figure 14 shows fusion of piston head and ring area in a gasoline engine. It is caused due to a phenomenon called hot bulb ignition occurring on the pistons, primarily on their heads, and in the larger flame extinguishing areas. The hot-bulb ignition occurs in the areas of combustion chamber, which have temperatures higher than the autoignition temperature of the air-fuel mixture. This causes the temperature of the piston head rapidly increase, soften, melt and fuse with the ring [10]. Fig. 14: Fusion of the piston head and the ring area [10]. Figure 15 illustrates a piston skirt seizure. From the figure, it is evident that piston skirt has completely seized. The dark coloring on the surface is due to rough and heavily over- ground abrasion spots. Causes for the failure include: 1) Overheating of the combustion chamber, 2) Poor lubrication, 3) Incorrect combustion process [10]. Fig. 15: Piston skirt seizure [10] Figure 15 illustrates propagation of fatigue crack of the piston pin along the semicircle. This fracture divides the piston head into two parts -as shown in Fig. 5. These are cracks due to excessive loads on the piston pin. The crack grows rapidly with poor lubrication and will ultimately result in the failure of the piston. Causes for the failure include: 1) Incorrect combustion process, mainly by delayed ignition, 2) incorrect starting of the cold engine, 3) hydraulic lock caused by water present in the fuel [10]. Fig: 16:ÂÂ   Crack in piston head and skirt [10]. 2.5. Materials Pistons are usually made of Aluminum and Aluminum alloys of eutectic, and partly hypereutectic composition which have high wear resistance. The most commonly used eutectic alloy is M124. Alloys such as M138 and M244 were used in two-stroke engine pistons, while M126 alloy was preferred in gasoline engines. The other recently developed alloys include M142, M145, and M174+, common composition of these alloys include elements of copper and nickel which provides high strength at elevated temperatures and thermal stability. The eutectic alloy M142 and M145 are used in gasoline engines, and the alloy M174+ in diesel engines. Aluminum Metal matrix composites are a new class of materials used in pistons which have superior properties than Aluminum alloys. These composites consist of Aluminum as metal matrix and SiC, Al2O3, TiC, TiB2, Graphite and certain other ceramics as reinforcements [9]. Table 2: Chemical composition of MAHLE Aluminum piston alloys (percent by weight) [9]. Elements M124 M126 M138 M244 AlSi12CuMgNi AlSi16CuMgNi AlSi18CuMgNi AlSi25CuMgNi Si 11.0-13.0 14.8-18.0 17.0-19.0 23.0-26.0 Cu 0.8-1.5 0.8-1.5 0.8-1.5 0.8-1.5 Mg 0.8-1.3 0.8-1.3 0.8-1.3 0.8-1.3 Ni 0.8-1.3 0.8-1.3 0.8-1.3 0.8-1.3 Fe max. 0.7 max. 0.7 max. 0.7 max. 0.7 Mn max. 0.3 max. 0.3 max. 0.3 max. 0.3 Ti max. 0.2 max. 0.2 max. 0.2 max. 0.2 Zn max3 0.3 max3 0.3 max3 0.3 max3 0.3 Cr max. 0.05 max. 0.05 max. 0.05 max. 0.05 Al remainder remainder remainder remainder Table 3: Chemical composition of MAHLE Aluminum piston alloys (percent by weight) [9]. Elements M142 M145 M174+ AlSi12Cu3Ni2Mg AlSi15Cu3Ni2Mg AlSi12Cu4Ni2Mg Si 11.0-13.0 14.0-16.0 11.0-13.0 Cu 2.5-4.0 2.5-4.0 3.-5.0 Mg 0.5-1.2 0.5-1.2 0.5-1.2 Ni 1.75-3.0 1.75-3.0 1.0-3.0 Fe max. 07 max. 07 max. 07 Mn max. 0.3 max. 0.3 max. 0.3 Ti max. 0.2 max. 0.2 max. 0.2 Zn max. 0.3 max. 0.3 max. 0.3 Zr max. 0.2 max. 0.2 max. 0.2 V max. 0.18 max. 0.18 max. 0.18 Cr max. 0.05 max. 0.05 max. 0.05 Al remainder remainder remainder 2.6. Current manufacturing process 2.6.1. Permanent Mold Aluminum Pistons Permanent mold is one of the oldest and common process used for manufacturing pistons. It consists of steel mold with single or multi-piece inner cores to create various intricate features of the piston.ÂÂ   This process is a relatively cheap for high volume for a justifiable tooling cost. Parts can be made of various alloys with improved strength at elevated temperatures. High tooling cost and porosity are the main disadvantages of permanent mold process [11]. 2.6.2. Forged Aluminum Pistons Pistons are forged for obtaining high performance, large bore, and increased strength.ÂÂ   Heated solid cylindrical aluminum blank is pressed into a die to create piston. The process yields low defective rate, increased ductility, and fracture toughness [11]. 2.6.3. Billet machined pistons Billet machined pistons are machined from the same wrought aluminum materials which are used in piston forging.ÂÂ   Billet machined pistons have high surface finish and has no tooling cost. The main disadvantage of this process is high cost [11]. 2.7. Improved materials: Aluminum-Graphite composites were primarily used for automotive antifriction applications. Low cost, good machinability, improved damping capacity are the main advantages of this composite. Aluminum-Graphite composites can be fabricated from various casting processes such as permanent mold casting, squeeze casting, centrifugal casting, and pressure die casting. Pistons made of Aluminum-Graphite composites exhibit properties like, low wear, minimal frictional loss, and elimination of seizure from poor lubrication [12]. Aluminum-Silicon Carbide composites have excellent specific strength, specific modulus and wear resistance. The amount of SiC determines the effect of coefficient of thermal expansion, higher the SiC content, lower the coefficient of thermal expansion. Conventional casting processes such as sand casting, permanent mold casting, investment casting and squeeze casting are used in manufacturing these composites [12]. 2.8. Analysis of aluminum and Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide pistons Firstly, a CAD model of a piston is built in CATIA V6, and is structurally and thermally analyzed using ANSYS 14.0 software [13]. Figure 17: Modeling of Piston and complete assembly [13]. 2.8.1. Aluminum composition. Table 4: Show the chemical composition of aluminum [13]. Elements Composition Si 0.10 Fe 0.20 Zn 0.03 Ga 0.04 V 0.03 Others 0.10 Aluminum 99.5 2.8.2. Aluminum Material properties. Table 5: Shows the material properties of Aluminum [13] [14]. Youngs Modulus 70000 MPa Poissons ratio 0.35 Density 2.7e-006 kg mm-3 Thermal conductivity 0.237 W mm-1 C-1 Bulk Modulus 77778 MPa Shear Modulus 25926 MPa Coefficient of thermal expansion 2.48e-005C-1 2.8.3. Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide composition. Table 6: Show the chemical composition of the aluminum alloy (6063) [13]. Elements Composition Elements Composition Si 0.4430 Zn 0.0001 Fe 0.1638 Cr 0.0024 Cu 0.0041 Ti 0.0078 Mg 0.5832 Ca 0.0003 Mn 0.0132 Al 98.751 To obtain the composite silicon carbide powder (15% by weight) is added to the aluminum alloy (6063). For example, 150g of silicon carbide is added to every 1kg of aluminum alloy (6063) [13]. 2.8.4. Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide composite material properties: Table 7: Shows the material properties of Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide composite [13] [15]. Youngs Modulus 230Gpa Poissons ratio 0.24 Density 2.937e-006 kg mm^-3 Thermal conductivity 0.197 W mm^-1 C^-1 Bulk Modulus 1.4744e+005 MPa Shear Modulus 92742 MPa Coefficient of thermal expansion 0.7e-005C-1 Figure 18: Mesh Model of Piston [13]. 2.8.5. Thermal Analysis Thermal analysis is a technique which analyses the variation of physical properties of a substance as a function of temperature [13]. Figure 19: Thermal boundary conditions applied to piston [13]. Figure 20: Temperature Distribution in Aluminum piston [13]. Figure 21: Temperature Distribution in Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide piston [13]. Figure 22: Total Heat Flux in Aluminum piston [13]. Figure 23: Total Heat Flux in Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide piston [13]. 2.8.6. Static Structural Analysis A static structural analysis helps in determining displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components. The loads do not take inertia and damping effects in consideration. Assumption: Steady state loading conditions i.e., variation of loads and response of structure are varied slowly with respect to time [13]. Figure 24: Fixed Support Model of piston [13]. Fig 25: Total Deformation on Aluminum piston [13]. Figure 26: Total Deformation on Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide piston [13]. Figure 27: Equivalent Stress Distribution in Aluminum Piston [13]. Figure 28: Equivalent Stress Distribution In Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide Piston [13]. 2.9. COMPARISON: 2.9.1. Results of static structural analysis Table 8: Shows the Results of static structural analysis of two pistons [13]. Material Total Deformation Equivalent Stress Equivalent strain Al 0.19052 mm 683.22 MPa 0.00976 mm/mm AlSiC 0.060777 mm 703.54 MPa 0.0030589 mm/mm From the above table, Aluminum-Silicon-Carbide composite has lesser deformation, lesser equivalent strain [13]. However, the equivalent stress of the composite piston is higher than Aluminum piston and this can be reduced by redesigning the stress concentration areas of the piston 2.9.2. Results of thermal analysis Table 9: Shows the Results of thermal analysis of two pistons [13]. Material Temperature Total Heat Flux Al